Sedimentology & Stratigraphy ---Gary Nichols<br><br><br>Contents<br> <br> <br> <br> <br>6<br>Preface, ix<br>Introduction: sedimentology and stratigraphy, 1<br>1.1 Sedimentology and stratigraphy in Earth sciences, I<br>1.2 Stratigraphy and sedimentology, 2<br>1.3 See the world in just one grain of sand, 2<br>1.4 Processes and products, 3<br>1.5 Sedimentary environments and facies, 4<br>1.6 Modern and ancient sedimentary environments, 6<br>1.7 Geographical distribution of environments and facies, 6<br>1.8 Changing environments and facies through time, 6<br>1.9 The stratigraphic record and geological time, 7 <br>1.10 1.10 Earth history, global tectonics, climate and evolution, 7<br>Terrigenous clastic sediments: gravel, sand and mud, 10<br>2.1 The components of sediments and sedimentary rocks, 10<br>2.2 classification and nomenclature 11<br>2.3 gravel and conglomerate12 <br>2.4 sand and sand stone 14<br>2.5 clay,silt and mudrock18<br>2.6 Destcription 20<br>2.7 granulometric21<br>2.8 Maturity of terrigenous23<br>2.9 terrigenous evolution24<br>Further reading, 24<br>Biogenic, chemical and volcanogenic sediments, 25<br>3.1 Limestone, 25<br>3.2 Volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, 29<br>3.3 Evaporite minerals, 31<br>3.4 Cherts, 32<br>Classification and nomenclature of terrigenous clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks, 11 Gravel and conglomerate, 12 Sand and sandstone, 14 Clay, silt and mudrock, 18 Description of the textures of terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks, 20 Granulometric and clast shape analysis, 21 Maturity of terrigenous clastic material, 23 Terrigenous clastic sediments: summary, 24<br> <br>3.5 Phosphates, 33<br>3.6 Sedimentary ironstone, 33<br>3.7 Carbonaceous (organic) deposits, 33<br>3.8 The description of sedimentary rocks in hand specimen, 35<br>3.9 Examination of sedimentary rocks under the<br>microscope, 35 Further reading, 36<br>Processes of transport and sedimentary structures, 37<br>4.1 Transport media, 37<br>4.2 The behaviour of fluids and particles in fluids, 38<br>4.3 Flows, sediment and bedfonns, 43<br>4.4 Waves, 52<br>4.5 Sedimentary structures in sand-mud mixtures, 54<br>4.6 Mass flows, 54<br>4.7 Mudcracks, 58<br>4.8 Erosional sedimentary structures, 59<br>4.9 Sedimentary structures and sedimentary<br>environments, 60 Further reading, 61<br>Environments and facies, 62<br>5.1 Interpreting past depositional environments, 62<br>5.2 The concept of ‘facies’, 62<br>5.3 Distribution of palaeoenvironments in time and space, 66<br>5.4 Palaeocurrents, 66<br>5.5 Provenance, 69<br>5.6 Graphic sedimentary logs, 70<br>5.7 Facies and environments: summary, 74 Further reading, 75<br>Continents: sources of sediment and environments of deposition, 76<br>6.1 From source of sediment to formation of strata, 76<br>6.2 The formation of mountains and hills, 77<br>6.3 Continental climatic regimes, 77<br>6.4 Surface processes, 78<br> <br>6.5 Weathering processes, 79<br>6.6 Erosion and transport, 83<br>6.7 Factors which influence erosion rates, 86<br>6.8 Continental environments of deposition, 87<br>6.9 Continental environments: summary, 88 Further reading, 88<br>7 Glaciers and ice caps, 89<br>7.1 Formation of glaciers, 89<br>7.2 Erosion .by glaciers, 91<br>7.3 Glacial deposits, 91<br>7.4 Distribution of glacial deposits, 94<br>7.5 Recognition of glacial deposits: summary, 94 Further reading, 95<br>8 Arid continental depositional environments, 96<br>8.1 Deserts, 96<br>8.2 Wind in deserts, 97<br>8.3 Water in a desert, 101<br>8.4 Alluvial fans, 102<br>8.5 Playa lakes, 108<br>8.6 Life in the desert, 109<br>8.7 Characteristics of the deposits of arid continental<br>environments: summary, 109 Further reading, 110<br>9 Rivers the fluvial environment, 111<br>9.1 River forms and patterns, 111<br>9.2 Modem rivers, 113<br>9.3 Floodplains, 120<br>9.4 Ancient fluvial deposits, 121<br>9.5 Palaeocurrents in fluvial systems, 123<br>9.6 Fossils in fluvial environments, 124<br>9.7 Soils and palaeosols, 124<br>9.8 Recognition of fluvial deposits: summary, 126 Further reading, 127<br>10 Lacustrine environments: fresh and saline lakes, 128<br>10.1 Modern lakes, 128<br>10.2 Morphology and processes in lakes, 129<br>10.3 Lacustrine sediments and facies, 130<br>10.4 Saline lakes, 132<br>10.5 Life in lakes, 133<br>10.6 Lake environments: summary, 134 Further reading, 134<br>11 The marine realm: morphology and processes, 135<br>11.1 Marine environments, 135<br>11.2 Tides, 136<br>11.3 Wave and storm processes, 140<br>11.4 Thermo-haline currents, 141<br>11.5 Divisions of the marine realm, 142<br> <br>11.6 Chemical and biochemical sedimentation in oceans, 143<br>11.7 Ecology of the seas, 144<br>11.8 Marine environments: summary, 147 Further reading, 148<br>12 Deltas and estuaries, 149<br>12.1 Deltas, 149<br>12.2 Controls on deltas, 152<br>12.3 Coarse-grained deltas, 158<br>12.4 Delta ‘cycles’, 159<br>12.5 Post- and syndepositional effects on deltas, 161<br>12.6 Recognition of deltaic deposits: summary, 162<br>12.7 Estuaries, 163<br>12.8 Recognition of estuarine deposits: summary, 165 Further reading, 166<br>13 Coastlines: beaches, barriers and lagoons, 167<br>13.1 Coastal environments, 167<br>13.2 Morphological features of coastlines, 168<br>13.3 Clastic coastlines, 171<br>13.4 Carbonate coastlines, 174<br>13.5 Arid coastlines, 176<br>13.6 Recognition of coastal deposits: summary, 178 Further reading, 179<br>14 Shallow seas, 18O<br>14.1 Sediment supply to shallow seas, 180<br>14.2 Shallow marine clastic environments, 181<br>14.3 Storm-dominated shallow clastic seas, 181<br>14.4 Tide-dominated shallow clastic seas, 183<br>14.5 Shallow marine carbonate environments, 186<br>14.6 Carbonate ramps, 187<br>14.7 Rimmed carbonate shelves, 188<br>14.8 Epeiric, drowned and isolated carbonate platforms, 190<br>14.9 Barred basins and saline giants, 191 14.10 Criteria for the recognition of shelf<br>sediments, 193 Further reading, 193<br>15 Deep marine environments, 194<br>15.1 Modern and ancient oceans, 194<br>15.2 Deep marine mass flows, 196<br>15.3 Submarine fans, 199<br>15.4 Contourites, 202<br>15.5 Pelagic and hemipelagic sedimentation, 202<br>15.6 Other features of deep ocean sediments, 205<br>15.7 Fossils in deep ocean sediments, 205<br>15.8 Ancient deep ocean deposits, 206<br>15.9 Recognition of deep ocean deposits:<br>summary, 206 Further reading, 207<br> <br>16 Volcanic environments, 208<br>16.1 Volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, 208<br>16.2 Lavas, 208<br>16.3 Volcaniclastic rocks, 208<br>16.4 Environments of deposition, 212<br>16.5 Recognition of volcanigenic deposits: summary, 213<br>16.6 Volcanic rocks in stratigraphy: flows, dykes and<br>sills, 214 Further reading, 214<br>17 Sediments into rocks: post-depositional processes, 215<br>17.1 Post-depositional modification of sedimentary layers, 215<br>17.2 Post-depositional physical and chemical processes, 217<br>17.3 Nodules and concretions, 220<br>17.4 Clastic diagenesis, 221<br>17.5 Carbonate diagenesis, 222<br>17.6 Post-depositional changes to evaporites, 225<br>17.7 Diagenesis of volcaniclastic sediments, 226<br>17.8 Formation of coal and hydrocarbons, 226<br>17.9 Diagenetic processes: summary, 228 Further reading, 228<br>18 Stratigraphy: concepts and lithostratigraphy, 229<br>18.1 Stratigraphy and geological time, 229<br>18.2 Chronostratigraphy, 231<br>18.3 Physical stratigraphy, 232<br>18.4 Lithostratigraphy, 234<br>18.5 Lithostratigraphic nomenclature, 236<br>18.6 Lithostratigraphy and

environments, 238<br>18.7 Lithostratigraphy and geological maps, 239<br>18.8 Lithostratigraphy and correlation, 240 Further reading, 240<br>19 Biostratigraphy, 241<br>19.1 Strata and fossils, 241<br>19.2 Fossils in stratigraphy, 244<br>19.3 Taxa used in biostratigraphy, 246<br>19.4 Correlating different environments, 248<br>19.5 Biostratigraphic nomenclature, 248<br>19.6 Biostratigraphy and Chronostratigraphy, 249 Further reading, 250<br>20 Dating and correlation techniques, 251<br>20.1 Radiometrie dating, 251<br>20.2 Magnetostratigraphy, 255<br>20.3 Other dating methods, 259<br>20.4 Dating in the Quaternary, 260<br>20.5 Correlation, 261 Further reading, 263<br> <br>21 Sequence stratigraphy and sea level changes, 264<br>21.1 Introduction, 264<br>21.2 Depositional sequences and systems tracts, 268<br>21.3 Facies patterns in depositional sequences, 270<br>21.4 Sequences in carbonate depositional environments, 272<br>21.5 Subdivision of depositional sequences and systems tracts: parasequences, 274<br>21.6 Sequence stratigraphy and depositional environments, 276<br>21.7 Practical sequence stratigraphy, 280<br>21.8 Causes of sea level fluctuations, 281 Further reading, 289<br>22 Subsurface stratigraphy, 290<br>22.1 Seismic reflection profiles, 290<br>22.2 Interpreting seismic reflections, 292<br>22.3 Structural features on seismic profiles, 293<br>22.4 Seismic facies, 294<br>22.5 Relating seismic profiles to geological cross-sections, 294<br>22.6 Borehole stratigraphy and sedimentology, 294<br>22.7 Subsurface facies analysis, 297<br>22.8 Use of borehole data, 298 Further reading, 298<br>23 Sedimentary basins, 299<br>23.1 Tectonics of sedimentary basins, 299<br>23.2 Basins related to crustal extension, 300<br>23.3 Basins related to subduction, 306<br>23.4 Basins related to continental collision, 310<br>23.5 Basins related to strike-slip plate boundaries, 312<br>23.6 Complex and hybrid basins, 315<br>23.7 Changes in tectonic setting with time, 315 Further reading, 315<br>24 The Earth through geological time, 316<br>24.1 Uniformitarianism: ‘the present is the key to the past’, 316<br>24.2 Catastrophic events: meteorite and comet impacts, 318<br>24.3 ‘Catastrophic’ events in sedimentation, 318<br>24.4 Life (biosphere) through time, 320<br>24.5 The atmosphere and air circulation, 322<br>24.6 Plate tectonics through time, 323<br>24.7 Climate through time, 324<br>24.8 Planetary behaviour through time, 326<br>24.9 Gaps in the record, 326 24.10 The sedimentary record, 328 Further reading, 328<br>References, 329 Index, 341<br>