Essentials of geology

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Title:

Author:

Wicander, Reed

ISBN:

9780534547745

Personal Author:

Wicander, Reed

Edition:

2nd ed.

Publication Information:

Belmont, CA : Wadsworth Publishing Company , 1999.

Physical Description:

447 s. (cd.rom.) ; 28 sm.

Abstract:

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Understanding Earth: An Introduction to Physical " PROLOGUE 3 INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SYSTEMS 5 WHAT IS GEOLOGY? 7 GEOLOGY AND THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE 8 HOW GEOLOGY AFFECTS OUR EVERYDAY LIVES 8 THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE DIFFERENTIATION OF EARLY EARTH 9 EARTH AS A DYNAMIC PLANET 10 GEOLOGY AND THE FORMULATION OF THEORIES 11 Perspective 1.1 The Aral Sea 12 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY 13 THE ROCK CYCLE 15 The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics 17 GEOLOGIC TIME AND UNIFORMITARIANISM 17 CHAPTER SUMMARY IMPORTANT 19 TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS POINTS 20 TO PONDER 20 WORLD WIDE WEB 21 ACTIVITIES CD-ROM EXPLORATION 21 CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 22 PROLOGUE 23 INTRODUCTION 25 EARLY IDEAS ABOUT CONTINENTAL DRIFT 25 THE EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT 26 Continental Fit 26 Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain Ranges 26 Glacial Evidence 27 Fossil Evidence 27 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering 29 MAGNETIC REVERSALS AND SEAFLOOR SPREADING 30 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY 32 PLATE BOUNDARIES 32 Divergent Boundaries 33 Convergent Boundaries 33 Perspective 2.1 The Supercontinent Cycle 34 OCEANIC-OCEANIC BOUNDARIES 35 CHAPTER 3 MINERALS 46 OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL BOUNDARIES 35 CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL BOUNDARIES 37 Transform Boundaries 38 PLATE MOVEMENT AND MOTION 38 Hot Spots and Absolute Motion 39 THE DRIVING MECHANISM OF PLATE TECTONICS 39 PLATE TECTONICS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 41 CHAPTER SUMMARY IMPORTANT 42 IMPORTANT TERMS 42 REWIEV QUESTIONS 43 POINTS TO PONDER 44 WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 44 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 45 PROLOGUE 47 INTRODUCTION 50 MATTER AND ITS COMPOSITION 50 Elements and Atoms 50 Bonding and Compounds 51 IONIC BONDING 52 COVALENT BONDING 53 METALLIC AND VAN DER WAALS BONDS 53 MINERALS 54 Naturally Occurring, Inorganic Substances 54 The Nature of Crystals 54 Chemical Composition 54 Perspective 3.1 Gold 56 Physical Properties 57 MINERAL DIVERSITY 57 MINERAL GROUPS 57 Silicate Minerals 58 Other Mineral Groups 59 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 59 Color and Luster 60 Crystal Form 60 Cleavage and Fracture 61 Hardness 62 Specific Gravity 62 Other Properties 62 ORIGIN OF MINERALS 62 ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 63 MINERAL RESOURCES AND RESERVES 63 CHAPTER SUMMARY 65 IMPORTANT TERMS 65 REVIEW QUESTIONS 65 POINTS TO PONDER 66 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES , 66 CD-ROM EXPLORATION % 67 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous Activity 68 CHAPTER 4 PROLOGUE 69 INTRODUCTION MAGMA AND LAVA 70 Composition 71 Temperature 71 Viscosity 71 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAGMA 71 Bowen’s Reaction Series 72 Magma at Spreading Ridges 73 Subduction Zones and the Origin of Magma 73 Compositional Changes in Magma 74 IGNEOUS ROCKS 76 Textures 76 Composition 77 Classification 77 ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS 78 BASALT-GABBRO 78 ANDESITE-DIORITE 78 RHYOLITE-GRANITE 78 PEGMATITE 79 OTHER IGNEOUS ROCKS 79 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS BODIES: PLUTONS 80 Dikes and Sills 80 Laccoliths 81 Volcanic Pipes and Necks 81 Batholiths and Stocks 81 Perspective 4.1 Shiprock, New Mexico 82 MECHANICS OF BATHOLITH EMPLACEMENT 83 CHAPTER SUMMARY 84 IMPORTANT TERMS 85 REVIEW QUESTIONS 85 POINTS TO PONDER 86 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 86 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 87 CHAPTER 5 Vo l c a n i s m 88 PROLOGUE 89 INTRODUCTION 91 VOLCANISM 92 Volcanic Gases 92 Lava Flows and Pyroclastaic Materials 94 Volcanoes 97 SHIELD VOLCANOES 97 CINDER CONES 99 COMPOSITE VOLCANOES 99 LAVA DOMES 100 Perspective 5.1 Eruptions of Cascade Range Volcanoes 102 Monitoring Volcanoes and Forecasting Eruptions 103 Fissure Eruptions 104 Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits 105 DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES 106 PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, AND PLUTONS 106 CHAPTER SUMMARY 108 IMPORTANT TERMS 108 REVIEW QUESTIONS 109 POINTS TO PONDER 109 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 110 CD-ROM EXPLORATION Ill CHAPTER 6 112 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil PROLOGUE 113 INTRODUCTION 115 MECHANICAL WEATHERING 115 Frost Action 116 Pressure Release 117 Thermal Expansion and Contraction 118 Salt Crystal Growth 118 Activities of Organisms 118 CHEMICAL WEATHERING 119 Solution 119 Oxidation 120 Hydrolysis 121 FACTORS CONTROLLING THE RATE OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING 121 Particle Size 121 Climate 121 Perspective 6.1 Acid Rain 122 Parent Mater/a/ 124 SOIL 125 THE SOIL PROFILE 125 FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL FORMATION 126 Climate 126 Parent Material 127 Organic Activity 128 Relief and Slope 128 Time .

128 SOIL DEGRADATION 128 WEATHERING AND MINERAL RESOURCES 130 CHAPTER SUMMARY 131 IMPORTANT TERMS 131 REVIEW QUESTIONS 132 j POINTS TO PONDER WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES JH CD-ROM EXPLORATION JH CHAPTER 7 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks PROLOGUE 135 INTRODUCTION 137 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION 138 LITHIFICATION: SEDIMENT TO SEDIMENTARY ROCK 139 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 140 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 140 CONGLOMERATE AND SEDIMENTARY BRECCIA 140 SANDSTONE 141 MUDROCK 141 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks 141 LIMESTONE AND DOLOSTONE 142 EVAPORITES 142 CHERT 142 COAL 142 READING THE STORY IN ROCKS 143 Sedimentary Structures 143 Fossils 146 Environment of Deposition 146 SEDIMENTS, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, AND NATURAL RESOURCES 147 Perspective 7.1 The Abundance of Fossils 148 Petroleum and Natural Gas 149 Uranium 15C Banded Iron Formation 151 CHAPTER SUMMARY 15] IMPORTANT TERMS 152 REVIEW QUESTIONS 153 POINTS TO PONDER 153 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 154 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 155 CHAPTER 8 Metamorphism and MetamorphicRocks 156 PROLOGUE 157 INTRODUCTION 159 THE AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM 159 Perspective 8.1 Asbestos 160 Heat 161 Pressure 161 Fluid Activity 161 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM 162 Contact Metamorphism 162 Dynamic Metamorphism 164 Regional Metamorphism 164 CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 165 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 165 Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 167 METAMORPHIC ZONES 168 METAMORPHISM AND PLATE TECTONICS 169 METAMORPHISM AND NATURAL RESOURCES - 170 CHAPTER SUMMARY 171 IMPORTANT TERMS ’ 171 REVIEW QUESTIONS 171 POINTS TO PONDER 172 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 172 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 173 CHAPTER 9 174 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior PROLOGUE 175 INTRODUCTION 177 ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY 178 SEISMOLOGY 178 The Frequency and Distribution of Earthquakes 180 Seismic Waves 181 Locating an Earthquake 183 Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 183 THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES 185 Perspective 9.1 Designing Earthquake- Resistant Structures 188 EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION 190 EARTHQUAKE CONTROL 191 EARTH’S INTERIOR 192 The Core 193 The Mantle 194 Seismic Tomography 194 EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT 195 CHAPTER SUMMARY ‘ 196 IMPORTANT TERMS 196 REVIEW QUESTIONS 197 POINTS TO PONDER 197 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 198 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 199 CHAPTER 10 DEFORMATION AND MOUNTAİN BUILDING PROLOGUE 201 INTRODUCTION 202 DEFORMATION 203 Strike and Dip 204 Folds 204 MONOCLINES, ANTICLINES, AND SYNCLINES 204 PLUNGING FOLDS 206 DOMES AND BASINS .

206 Joints 207 Faults 207 Perspective 10.1 Folding, Joints, and Arches 208 DIP-SLIP FAULTS ~ 209 STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS 209 MOUNTAINS 209 Types of Mountains 210 MOUNTAIN BUILDING: OROGENY 211 Orogenies at Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Boundaries 212 Orogenies at Oceanic-Continental Plate Boundaries 213 Orogenies at Continental-Continental Plate Boundaries 214 MICROPLATE TECTONICS AND MOUNTAIN BUILDING 214 MEASURING GRAVITY AND THE PRINCIPLE OF ISOSTASY 215 CHAPTER SUMMARY 218 IMPORTANT TERMS 218 REVIEW QUESTIONS 219 POINTS TO PONDER 220 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 220 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 221 CHAPTER 1 l Mass Wasting 222 PROLOGUE 223 INTRODUCTION 224 FACTORS INFLUENCING MASS WASTING 225 Slope Angle 226 Weathering and Climate 226 Water Content 227 Vegetation 227 Overloading 227 Perspective 11.1 The Tragedy at Aberfan, Wales 228 Geology and Slope Stability 229 Triggering Mechanisms 229 TYPES OF MASS WASTING 230 Falls 230 Slides 231 Flows 231 Complex Movements 236 RECOGNIZING AND MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS OF MASS MOVEMENTS 236 CHAPTER SUMMARY 239 IMPORTANT TERMS 239 REVIEW QUESTIONS 240 POINTS TO PONDER 240 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 241 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 241 CHAPTER 12 242 Running Water PROLOGUE 243 INTRODUCTION 245 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 246 RUNNING WATER 247 Stream Gradient, Velocity, and Discharge 247 STREAM EROSION 248 TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT LOAD 249 STREAM DEPOSITION 250 Braided Streams and Their Deposits 250 Meandering Streams and Their Deposits 251 Floods and Floodplain Deposits 251 Deltas 253 Perspective 12.1 Predicting and Controlling Floods 254 Alluvial Fans 257 DRAINAGE BASINS AND DRAINAGE PATTERNS 257 BASE LEVEL 259 THE GRADED STREAM 261 DEVELOPMENT OF STREAM VALLEYS 261 Stream Terraces 262 Incised Meanders 263 CHAPTER SUMMARY 264 IMPORTANT TERMS 264 REVIEW QUESTIONS 265 POINTS TO PONDER 265 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 266 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 266 CHAPTER 1 3 Groundwater 268 PROLOGUE 269 INTRODUCTION 270 GROUNDWATER AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 270 POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY 271 THE WATER TABLE 272 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT 272 SPRINGS, WATER WELLS, AND ARTESIAN SYSTEMS 272 Springs 273 Water Wells 274 Artesian Systems 274 GROUNDWATER EROSION AND DEPOSITION 275 Sinkholes and Karst Topography 275 Caves and Cave Deposits 276 MODIFICATIONS OF THE GROUNDWATER SYSTEM AND THEIR EFFECTS 277 Lowering of the Water Table 278 Saltwater Incursion 279 Subsidence 279 Groundwater Contamination 280 HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS 281 Perspective 13.1 Radioactive-Waste Disposal 282 Geothermal Energy 286 CHAPTER SUMMARY -2B7 IMPORTANT TERMS 287 REVIEW QUESTIONS 288 POINTS TO PONDER 288 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 289 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 290 CHAPTER 14 Glaciers and Glaciation 292 PROLOGUE 293 INTRODUCTION 294 GLACIERS AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 295 THE ORIGIN OF GLACIAL ICE 295 TYPES OF GLACIERS 296 THE GLACIAL BUDGET 296 RATES OF GLACIAL MOVEMENT 298 GLACIAL EROSION AND TRANSPORT 299 Perspective 14.1 Surging Glaciers 300 Erosional Landforms of Valley Glaciers 301 U-SHAPED GLACIAL TROUGHS 301 HANGING VALLEYS 302 CIRQUES, ARETES, AND HORNS 302 Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciers 303 GLACIAL DEPOSITS 303 Landforms Composed of Till 304 END MORAINES 304 LATERAL AND MEDIAL MORAINES 305 DRUMLINS 306 Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift 306 OUTWASH PLAINS AND VALLEY TRAINS 306 KAMES AND ESKERS 306 Glacial Lakes and Their Deposits 306 CAUSES OF GLACIATION 307 The Milankovitch Theory 309 Short-Term Climatic Events 310 CHAPTER SUMMARY 310 IMPORTANT TERMS 311 REVIEW QUESTIONS , 311 POINTS TO PONDER 312 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 312 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 313 CHAPTER 15 314 The Work of Wind and Deserts PROLOGUE 315 INTRODUCTION 317 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY WIND 317 Bed Load , 317 Suspended Load 318 WIND EROSION 318 Abrasion 318 Deflation , 319 WIND DEPOSITS 319 The Formation and Migration of Dunes 319 Dune Types 320 Loess 322 AIR-PRESSURE BELTS AND GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS 322 THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERTS 323 CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERTS 324 Temperature and Vegetation 324 Weathering and Soils 324 Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater 325 Wind 325 DESERT LANDFORMS 325 Perspective 15.1 Petroglyphs 326 CHAPTER SUMMARY 330 IMPORTANT TERMS 330 REVIEW QUESTIONS 331 POINTS TO PONDER 331 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 332 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 332 CHAPTER 16 The Seafloor, Shorelines, and Shoreline Processes334 PROLOGUE 335 NTRODUCTION 337 EXPLORING THE SEAFLOOR 337 SEAFLOOR TOPOGRAPHY 338 Continental Margins The 338 Deep-Ocean Basin 340 DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTATION REEFS 341 SHORELINES AND SHORELINE PROCESSES 342 Tides 342 Waves 344 WAVE GENERATION 344 SHALLOW-WATER WAVES AND BREAKERS 344 Nearshore Currents 345 WAVE REFRACTION AND LONGSHORE CURRENT RIP 345 CURRENTS 345 SHORELINE DEPOSITION .

347 Beaches 347 Spits, Baymouth Bars, and Barrier Islands 348 The Nearshore Sediment Budget 349 Perspective 16.1 Cape Cod, Massachusetts 350 SHORELINE EROSION 353 Wave-Cut Platforms and Associated Landforms 353 TYPES OF COASTS 353 RESOURCES FROM THE SEA 355 CHAPTER SUMMARY 356 IMPORTANT TERMS 357 REVIEW QUESTIONS 357 POINTS TO PONDER 358 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 358 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 359 CHAPTER 17 Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles 360 PROLOGUE 361 INTRODUCTION 362 EARLY CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGIC TIME AND THE AGE OF EARTH 363 JAMES HUTTON AND THE RECOGNITION OF GEOLOGIC TIME 364 RELATIVE-DATING METHODS 364 Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating 364 Unconformities 366 CORRELATION 367 ABSOLUTE-DATING METHODS 368 Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes 369 Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives 370 PERSPECTIVE 17.1 RADON: THE SILENT KILLER 372 Sources of Uncertainty 375 Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs 376 Carbon 14 Dating Method 377 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 377 CHAPTER SUMMARY 378 IMPORTANT TERMS 379 REVIEW QUESTIONS 379 POINTS TO PONDER 380 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 380 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 381 CHAPTER 18 382 Earth History PROLOGUE 383 INTRODUCTION 384 PRECAMBRIAN EARTH HISTORY 384 The Origin and Evolution of Continents 385 Shields and Cratons 385 Archean Earth History 385 Proterozoic Earth History 386 PRECAMBRIAN MINERAL RESOURCES 388 PALEOZOIC PALEOGEOGRAPHY 390 ’ALEOZOIC EVOLUTION OF NORTH AMERICA 390 The Sauk Sequence 393 The Tippecanoe Sequence 393 The Kaskaskia Sequence 394 The Absaroka Sequence 395 IISTORY OF THE PALEOZOIC MOBILE BELTS 398 Appalachian Mobile Belt 398 Cordilleran Mobile Belt 399 Ouachita Mobile Belt 399 ALEOZOIC MICROPLATES AND HE FORMATION OF PANGAEA 400 ALEOZOIC MINERAL RESOURCES 401 THE BREAKUP OF PANGAEA 401 THE MESOZOIC HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA 401 Eastern Coastal Region 401 Gulf Coastal Region 403 Western Region 404 Perspective 18.1 Petrified Forest National Park 407 MESOZOIC MINERAL RESOURCES 408 CENOZOIC EARTH HISTORY 408 Cenozoic Plate Tectonics and Orogeny 409 The North American Cordillera 410 The Gulf Coastal Plain 410 Eastern North America 411 PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 412 CENOZOIC MINERAL RESOURCES 412 CHAPTER SUMMARY 413 IMPORTANT TERMS 414 REVIEW QUESTIONS 414 POINTS TO PONDER 415 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 416 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 417 CHAPTER 19 418 Life History PROLOGUE 419 INTRODUCTION 421 PRECAMBRIAN LIFE 421 PALEOZOIC LIFE 422 Cambrian Marine Invertebrate Community 423 Ordovician Marine Invertebrate Community 423 Silurian and Devonian Marine Invertebrate Community 424 Carboniferous and Permian Marine Invertebrate Community 424 The Permian Marine Invertebrate Extinction Event 424 Vertebrate Evolution 425 Plant Evolution 426 MESOZOIC LIFE 428 Marine Invertebrates 428 Reptiles 428 ARCHOSAURS AND THE ORIGIN OF DINOSAURS 428 DINOSAURS 428 WARM-BLOODED DINOSAURS 428 FLYING REPTILES 431 MARINE REPTILES 431 Perspective 19.1 Mary Anning’s Contributions of Paleontology 432 Birds 433 Mammals 434 Plants 435 Cretaceous Mass Extinctions 435 CENOZOIC LIFE 436 Mammals 436 Primate Evolution 438 CHAPTER SUMMARY 439 IMPORTANT TERMS \ 440 REVIEW QUESTIONS 440 POINTS TO PONDER 441 CD-ROM EXPLORATION 441 WORLD WIDE WEB ACTIVITIES 442 EPILOGUE 444 447 CD-ROM EXPLORATION APPENDIX A: ENGLISH-METRIC CONVERSION CHART Al APPENDIX B: PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS A2 APPENDIX C: MINERAL IDENTIFICATION TABLES A4 APPENDIX D: TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS A8 MULTIPLE-CHOICE REVIEW QUESTIONS A12 GLOSSARY Gl ADDITIONAL READINGS ARl CREDITS Cl INDEX 11

Subject Term:

Jeoloji

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